University 

New  Series 

Issued  Bi-monthly 


gfcTll 
ftf  nm'" 


>f  Oregon  Bulletin 


Vol.  I 


No.  2 


January,  1904 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2017  with  funding  from 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Champaign  Alternates 


https://archive.org/details/beowulfcynewulfh00glen_0 


BEOWULF 


CYNEWULF  AND  HIS  GREATEST 

POEM 


IRVING  MACKAY  GLEN 

PROFESSOR  OF  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE  AND  EARLY  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 
UNIVERSITY  OF  OREGON 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY 
EUGENE,  OREGON 


c 

, v.  \ l 


INTRODUCTION 

Mr.  Courthope,  in  his  admirable  ‘-History  of  English  Poet- 
ry,” inclines  to  the  opinion  that  English  poetry,  and  the  study  of 
it,  should  date  its  beginning  with  the  poetry  of  Chaucer*.  But 
lest  any  might  consider  that  he  held  the  literature  of  Anglo-Saxon 
England  in  too  low  esteem,  he  makes  later,  in  the  same  chapter 
of  the  same  book  the  following  generous  and  correct  statement^*: — 
“From  Chaucer  downwards  we  may  distinctly  observe  in  English 
poetry  the  confluence  of  three  great  streams  of  thought,  which 
blend  in  a single  channel  without  any  of  them  ever  quite  losing 
its  separate  life  and  identity.  Of  these  the  first,  and  perhaps  the 
most  powerful,  is  the  genius  of  Race,  the  stream  of  Anglo-Saxon 
language,  character  and  custom  $ ...” 

Mr.  Courthope  is  not  alone  in  his  small  estimate  of  the  im- 
portance of  the  literature  of  Anglo-Saxon  England,  but  few  of 
his  opinion  have  furnished  those  who  may  hold  in  higher  esteem 
this  era  of  our  literature  such  an  excellent  justification  tor  their 
study  of  it.  Since  literature  is  an  outgrowth  of  life,  where  is 
there  a better  opportunity  for  becoming  familiar  with  the 
genius,  character,  language  and  customs  of  the  Anglo-Saxons 
than  that  afforded  by  the  study  of  their  literature.  Where  is 
revealed  more  clearly  the  personality  of  the  race? 

The  work  of  those  formative  years  has  also  another  value, 
the  realization  of  which  is  forcing  itself  upon  students  of  English 
literature.  There  is  a decided  literary  value  that  characterizes 
the  written  product  of  the  people  in  England  before  the  Norman 

“Courthope,  “History  of  English  Poetry,”  Vol.  1,  p.  4. 

flbid,  Vol.  1,  p.  5. 

}Mr.  Courthope  makes  certain  modifications  that  are  unnecessary  to 
quote.  These  do  not  affect  materially  the  statement  here  quoted. 


conquest;  and  though  the  awakening  to  this  fact  is  but  a compar- 
atively recent  arrival  among  our  American  colleges  and  universi- 
ties, it  has,  never-the-less,  arrived,  and  its  presence  is  each  year 
more  clearly  manifest.  The  interest  in  this  era  of  English  litera- 
ture is,  indeed,  spreading  rapidly  considering  the  obstacles,  real 
and  serious  difficulties,  that  it  has  to  overcome. 

In  the  first  place,  the  English  of  the  period  during  which  the 
earliest  literature  was  produced  is  virtually  a foreign  language 
many  of  whose  forms  seem  more  nearly  akin  to  German  than  to 
Modern  English. 

Again,  since  the  increased  emphasis  laid  upon  the  literary 
value  of  this  period  is  of  recent  date,  many  teachers  of  English 
literature,  who  may  have  lacked  time,  opportunity,  or  inclination 
during  their  season  of  preparation  to  become  acquainted  with 
these  early  literary  efforts,  are,  on  account  of  this  lack  of 
acquaintance,  out  of  sympathy  with  them  and  inclined  to  mini- 
mize their  importance. 

And  then,  too,  when  there  are  in  the  domain  of  Modern 
English  literature  such  delightful  prospects  whence  one  may  view 
the  broad  and  fertile  reaches  of  an  enchanted  kingdom  whose 
riches  are  his  to  enjoy  at  will,  it  is  easy  to  forget  humble  begin- 
nings. Comparatively  few  voluntarily  pause  to  look  at  the  rock 
whence  they  were  hewn  or  the  hole  of  the  pit  whence  they  were 
digged. 

It  is  for  the  purpose  of  calling  attention  to  the  poetical 
efforts  of  a race  in  its  infancy  that  these  papers  have  been  written. 
They  do  not  pretend  to  be  exhaustive  treatises  of  the  subjects 
under  discussion.  Such  a course,  followed,  would  result  in 
defeating  the  very  end  desired — to  increase  popular  interest. 
Before  studies  complete  in  treatment  of  minute  details  can  be  of 
interest  there  must  be  the  pre-requisite  of  enthusiasm. 

It  has  been  the  intention  to  emphasize  at  least  three  aspects 
of  the  poems  that  we  shall  discuss: — the  historical,  the  artistic, 
and  in  so  far  as  it  is  possible,  the  personal  aspect.  More  than 
this  we  do  not  attempt. 

If  these,  and  prospective  papers  of  the  same  general  charac- 
ter, serve  to  increase,  or  perhaps  kindle,  in  the  minds  of  high 
school  and  college  students,  and  others  who  may  have  no  special 


knowledge  of  this  field,  an  interest  in  Anglo-Saxon  poetry,  the 
mission  of  these  studies  will  be  considered  successful. 

The  lecture  on  “ Beowulf  ” was  originally  prepared  for  use 
in  college  classes  in  the  University  of  Oregon  and  later  it  was 
used  in  extension  work.  It  appeared  some  time  ago  in  the 
“ Oregon  Monthly  ” and  in  response  to  requests  from  teachers 
and  others  for  copies,  it  was  thought  advisable  to  reprint  the 
article  at  this  time.  The  poems  “ Beowulf  ” and  “ Christ,  ” be- 
longing to  two  different  eras  of  the  same  general  period,  form  a 
sharp  and  interesting  contrast.  Both  are  Anglo-Saxon,  yet  they 
are  unlike  each  other  in  tone,  style  and  theme,  the  one  standing 
for  Anglo-Saxon  heathenism,  the  other  representing  the  fervor  of 
Anglo-Saxon  Christianity. 


BEOWULF 


The  Beowulf  is  an  Anglo-Saxon  poem,  the  oldest  poem  of 
consequence  in  our  language,  of  over  3000  words  in  length,  and 
written  before  600  A.  D.  Old,  is  it  not?  And  you  are  not 
interested  in  old  things!  Wait;  let  me  set  the  stage.  The  coun- 
try was  a sullen  land  of  sodden  skies,  a land  whose  shores  were 
swept  by  stormy  seas,  a land  of  grey — grey  fogs  and  mists,  grey 
cliffs,  the  ocean  grey.  Nowhere  decided  brightness,  everywhere 
the  soberness  of  the  grey.  The  people  were  a folk  that  dwelt  in 
homes,  a folk  as  serious  as  the  country.  Their  pleasure  was  of 
the  kind  that  hardy  men  could  best  enjoy,  that  we  of  today  would 
consider  to  a great  degree  work.  They  had  feasts,  banquets  and 
revels,  but  these  were  only  occasional  and  to  be  accepted  philo- 
sophically as  opportunities  for  taking  on  a load  of  viands  and 
accompanying  beverages  that  staggered  the  reveller  in  more 
senses  than  one.  From  authentic  accounts  their  capacity  was 
one  that  would  fill  the  bibulous  man  of  today  with  awe  and  admir- 
ation. 

Their  religion  was  fatalism.  Their  supreme  deity  was  Wyrd 
(Wierd)  fate.  He  was  over  all  and  ruled  all.  Again  appears 
the  grey — the  threads  of  fatalism  that  ran  throughout  their  lives. 

But  the  men  nurtured  in  such  a country,  of  such  a clime 
and  with  such  a creed  were  of  no  flimsy  stuff.  They  were  strong. 
They  honored  strength.  To  be  strong  was  to  be  a warrior.  To 
be  a successful  warrior  was  to  be  great.  They  feared  neither 
nature,  man  nor  divinity.  The  first  storms  that  swept  threaten- 
ingly against  the  uncertain  footsteps  of  childhood  fanned  into  a 
flame  of  rejoicing  a nature  that  delighted  in  blasts,  found  a soul 
inherited  from  a race  that  gloried  in  fighting  with  tempests,  that 
recked  naught  of  the  wild  surges  of  wind  that  swept  across  the 
whale-road.  In  combat  they  knew  no  fear.  Was  not  Wierd 
responsible  for  all  that  fell  to  the  lot  of  man?  Why  fear  man? 
All  were  in  the  hands  of  Wierd,  and  the  warrior  leading  a beaten 


I 


8 University  oi  Oregon  Bulletin 

handful  cries  out  defiantly:  “ The  heart  shall  be  harder,  the 
courage  keener,  the  mind  braver  as  our  strength  decreases.” 
They  were  in  the  keeping  of  Wierd.  Their  time  was  allotted  to 
them.  Man’s  efforts  could  not  increase  or  lessen  it. 

Such  were  our  Teutonic  forefathers — the  Angles  and  the 
Saxons  as  they  lived  in  the  lowlands  of  northern  Germany. 

Now  we  change  the  scene.  In  the  early  part  of  the  fifth 
century  the' dwellers  in  the  land  of  Britain  found  themselves  in 
great  trouble.  For  several  hundred  years  they  had  been  under 
the  protection  of  Rome,  who  was  powerful  enough  to  defend  her 
far  away  colony  from  marauding  bands.  But  with  the  strain 
upon  Roman  power  on  the  continent — the  strain  that  ended  in  the 
crash  of  Roman  supremacy — came  the  recall  of  the  outlying 
legions,  and  before  450  A.  D.  the  last  Roman  soldier  left  Britain 
and  the  people  were  told  to  look  after  themselves.  This  they 
were  unable  to  do.  They  had  forgotten  how.  Powerful  bands  of 
Piets  and  Scots  crossed  their  borders  and  caused  great  distress. 
The  Britains  were  powerless  to  prevent  these  raids,  and  in  des- 
pair they  turned  to  the  fair-haired,  stern-browed  Saxon  of  the 
continent.  Their  petition  was  granted.  The  Angles  and  Saxons 
sent  their  fleets  and  put  to  flight  the  invaders.  They  did  more. 
Finding  the  land  fertile,  the  country  pleasing  and  the  people  cow- 
ardly, they  took  up  their  abode  there,  ruled  the  people,  and  sent 
word  back  to  their  kinsmen  to  come  over  and  possess  the  land. 
They  came  in  hordes,  in  hosts,  made  settlements  in  Northumbria, 
in  Kent,  in  Essex  and  Sussex  and  Wessex,  and  became  the 
Anglo-Saxons  of  Great  Britain.  They  brought  with  them  their 
customs,  manners,  laws,  and  transplanted  into  a new  soil  their 
traditions,  lays  and  sagas. 

Groups  of  lays  were  thus  transplanted  concerning  a historic 
figure  called  Beowulf,  a warrior  of  extraordinary  strength  and 
daring,  of  incredible  endurance,  and,  withal,  kind,  mild-mannered 
and  judicious,  moved  rather  by  reason  than  by  impulse,  a friend 
to  helplessness,  a foe  to  oppression.  There  was  also  a body  of 
story  and  song  concerning  a semi-divine  personage  named 
Beowa,  and  it  is  probable  that  in  the  course  of  time  these  two 
became  one  in  the  Teutonic  mind  which  united  under  the  per- 
sonality named  Beowulf  the  legends  concerning  the  two. , From 


University  of  Oregon  Bulletin 


9 


evidence  found  in  the  poem  itself  we  know  how  it  came  to  be 
written.  The  scops,  or  minstrels,  the  forerunners  of  a literature, 
sang  or  chanted  stories  of  the  famous  deeds  of  their  hero  at 
feasts,  banquets,  courts  and  humble  homes,  praising  this  feat  or 
that,  contributing  a little  more  or  less  of  extravagance  as  the 
occasion  demanded,  each  scop  adding  here  and  there  a little  to 
themes  that  elicited  greatest  applause,  until  the  material  concern- 
ing Beowulf  began  to  assume  the  proportions  of  an  epic.  Then 
it  is  probable  that  different  men  attempted  to  shape  different 
parts  of  the  story  into  verse,  until  one,  greater  than  the  rest, 
seeing  the  wonderful  opportunity  and  being  able  to  improve  it, 
unified  the  whole  into  the  poem  we  know  at  the  present  day  as 
“The  Beowulf,”  keeping  in  mind  an  ethical  purpose,  and  inter- 
polating here  and  there  enough  of  the  Christian  element  to  give 
it  a decided  coloring  in  spite  of  the  heathen  sagas  from  which  it 
came. 

This  in  few  words  tells  how  the  Beowulf  came  to  be 

The  poem  may  be  divided  into  three  parts:  Beowulfs  fight 
with  a monster  named  Grendel;  his  encounter  with  Grendel’s 
mother,  and  finally  his  combat  with  a dragon  guardian  of  a 
treasure  cave,  in  which  contest,  though  successful,  he  is  mortally 
hurt. 

The  introduction  concerns  the  Danes,  and  tells  us  about 
Hrothgar,  their  king  at  the  time  of  Beowulf’s  visit  to  them. 
Hrothgar  was  the  descendent — great  grandson — of  Scyld,  son  of 
Scef,  which,  being  interpreted,  is,  “Shield,  the  son  of  Sheaf,”  and 
about  this  is  a very  pretty  story.  Scyld  came  to  the  Danes  from 
no  one  knew  whither — a child  lying  in  a boat,  moved  and  guided 
by  unknown,  invisible  power,  his  head  pillowed  on  a sheaf  of  grain 
and  about  him  in  profusion  heaps  of  princely  treasure.  He  grew, 
under  the  clouds,  in  honors  throve  until  each  one  of  those  dwell- 
ing around  the  whale-road  obeyed  him  and  paid  him  tribute. 
That  was  a good  king.  When  he  died,  we  are  told  that  they 
bore  him  to  the  ocean’s  wave,  his  trusty  companions,  just  as  he, 
beloved  land-prince,  had  bidden  while  he,  with  words,  ruled  the 
Danes.  There  at  the  haven  stood,  icy-gleaming  and  outfooting, 
the  ship  with  curved  prow.  The  people  laid  their  dear  war-lord, 
the  mighty,  by  the  mast,  filled  the  keel  with  treasure,  ornaments. 


10 


University  of  Oregon  Bulletin 


warlike  weapons,  bills,  burnies  and  battle-weeds,  lay  upon  his 
bosom  a heap  of  jewels  which  should  go  with  him  into  the  flood’s 
keeping,  then  placing  high  over  his  head  a golden  standard,  they 
let  the  waves  bear  their  gift  to  the  sea.  “And,”  adds  the  poet, 
“men  can  not  now  say  in  sooth  who  took  that  heap.” 

The  great-grandson  of  Scyld  was  Hrothgar.  To  him  now 
we  pass.  The  kings  between  Scyld  and  Hrothgar  had  been  just 
and  wise,  so  the  people  of  the  Danes  had  increased  in  numbers 
and  prosperity,  till  it  came  into  the  mind  of  Hrothgar  that  he 
would  build  a mead-hall — a great  banquet  hall — more  beautiful 
and  famous  than  all  the  children  of  men  ever  had  seen  or  heard 
of,  and  in  time  it  stood  as  commanded,  lofty  and  pinnacled,  the  great- 
est of  halls.  Heort  he  named  it.  Loud  each  day  rang  the  harp, 
the  song  of  joy  in  the  hall.  Bracelets  Hrothgar  dealt  at  ban- 
quets. He  was  a royal  ring-giver.  But  it  was  not  long  before 
dire  terror  filled  the  hearts  of  the  Danish  revellers.  Upon  these 
warriors  living  in  joys,  a wrathful  spirit,  a mighty  mark-stepper, 
Grendel  by  name,  who  held  the  moors,  fen  and  fastness,  began  to 
work  upon  them  great  woes.  After  nightfall  he  went  forth  to 
seek  out  the  high-built  hall,  and  found  therein  a band  of  nobles 
asleep  after  feasting.  Asleep  they  knew  not  sorrow,  nor  misfor- 
tunes of  men,  but  the  demon  of  death,  grim  and  greedy,  took 
thirty  of  the  thanes,  took  them  furiously,  as  they  rested,  depart- 
ing after  his  fill  of  slaughter,  exulting  in  his  booty,  to  seek  out  his 
dwelling. 

At  dawn  among  the  Danes  was  a great  wailing  upraised,  a 
loud  morning  cry.  The  mighty  Prince  Hrothgar  sat  mourning, 
the  strong  man  suffered,  sorrow  dwelt  among  the  thanes.  After 
a night,  more  deeds  of  murder  were  wrought.  Again  and  again 
Grendel  returned,  till  the  surviving  warriors  fled  and  empty  stood 
the  noblest  of  halls.  For  twelve  years  had  Grendel  striven 
against  Hrothgar  and  his  men,  till  among  many  tribes  were  his 
deeds  known,  and  sadly  the  scops  in  song  chanted  of  Grendel’s 
hateful  war  and  his  contests  continual.  Relief  seemed  impossi- 
ble. The  mighty  sat  in  the  council,  the  wise  pondered  sorrow- 
fully, all  in  vain,  till  at  last  among  the  people  of  the  Geats,  the 
strongest  man  among  mankind,  strong  with  the  strength  of  thirty 
warriors,  noble  and  great — Beowulf  they  called  him — bade  to  be 


University  of  Oregon  Bulletin 


11 


prepared  a ship  for  a journey  over  the  swan-road  to  the  land  of 
Hrothgar.  Fifteen  warriors  and  a sea-crafty  man  as  pilot  went 
as  companions. 

“The  men  shoved  out, 

Men  op  a willing  journey,  the  well-fitted  wood 
Went  then  o’er  the  waves  by  the  wind  hastened, 

The  foamy  necked-float,  to  a fowl  most  like; 

Till  at  the  same  hour  of  the  following  day 
The  curved  prow  had  traversed  the  water 
So  that  the  sailors  then  saw  land, 

The  sea-cliffs  shine,  the  mountain  steep. 

The  broad  sea-nesses.  Then  was  the  sea-goer 
At  the  end  of  his  voyage,  * * * 

* * * * Thankful  that  the  sea-paths 

Easy  were  found.” 

The  coast  guard  challenges  the  band,  and  is  so  awed  by 
Beowulf’s  commanding  mein  and  warlike  appearance  that  he 
conducts  them  in  state  to  the  road  that  leads  to  Hrothgar’s 
palace. 

“The  road  was  stone-laid.  The  war-burnie  shone 
Hard  and  hand-forged — the  bright  ringed  iron 
Sang  in  the  armor — as  they  in  their  war-weeds 
Approached  the  hall.  Their  burnies  rang, 

War  armor  of  men;  their  long  spears  stood, 

Seamen’s  weapons,  all  together, 

Grey  ash  above  the  armored  band 
With  weapons  adorned.” 

Again  a sentinel  challenges  them: 

“Whence  do  ye  bear  your  gilded  shields, 

Grey-colored  sarks,  and  grim  looking  helmets. 

Heap  of  war  shafts?” 

And  again  .Beowulf,  god-like  in  strength  and  beauty,  his 
flowing  hair  crowned  by  a shining  helmet,  over  the  visor  of  which 
kept  guard  the  boar’s  head,  adorned  with  gold,  shining  bright  and 
fire  hardened,  his  beard  sweeping  a breast  armored  in  battle-weeds 
of  linked  steel,  which  hung  from  shoulders  that  topped  and 
squared  the  frame  of  a Titan,  a frame  stout  enough  to  make  good 


12 


University  ot  Oregon  Bulletin 


the  boasts  that  fell  from  his  lips — again  Beowulf  with  his  proud 
bearing  and  wise  words  wins  the  confidence  of  the  sentinel,  who 
leads  him  and  his  men  to  Hrothgar. 

He  tells  Hrothgar  that  he  (Beowulf)  is  the  very  man  the 
nation  has  been  looking  for.  Had  he  not  battled  victoriously  with 
sea  monsters,  eotens  and  nickers.-*  Why  should  he  fear  to  fight 
against  Grendel?  He  has  heard  that  Grendel  is  weapon  proof, 
that  his  toughened  epidermis  would  only  dull  a good  sword,  and 
that  a zealous  blow  might  dent  him,  but  not  seriously  enough  to 
cause  any  considerable  inconvenience  to  the  monster;  so  he  very 
modestly  scorns,  in  his  turn,  to  use  weapons,  but  will  rather 
employ  his  knowledge  of  the  manly  art  of  offense  and  meet 
Grendel  with  naught  but  his  grip,  with  which  he  will  grapple 
’gainst  his  foe  and  pull  out  a victory  if  Weird  so  wills. 

Hrothgar  relates  in  reply,  the  trouble  Grendel  has  caused, 
accepts  Beowulf’s  offer  to  rid  Heort  of  the  terror  of  the  monster, 
and  spreads  a mighty  feast  in  the  hall.  And  here  Beowulf  has  an 
unpleasant  experience.  A warrior  named  Hunferth,  a jealous 
Dane,  envious  of  the  honors  showered  upon  Beowulf,  begins  to 
sneer  at  him  and  discredit  the  reports  of  one  of  the  most  famous 
deeds  of  Beowulf’s  youth,  the  swimming  match  with  Breca. 

Beowulf  replies  that  Hunferth  has  drunk  too  much  beer  and 
is  not  entirely  responsible  for  his  statements.  Notwithstanding 
this,  Beowulf  p'roceeds,  with  an  eloquence  inspired  by  indignation 
and  tinged  here  and  there  with  bitterness,  to  boast  as  modestly  as 
he  may  of  the  great  struggle.  For  five  days  the  contest  lasted, 
and  Beowulf  won.  Then,  ironically,  he  continues: 

“I  have  never  heard  told  about  thee  any  such  contests. 
Neither  you  nor  Breca  ever  did  a deed  as  daring  in  battle-play, 
though  you  were  the  murderer  of  your  own  brothers.  You  evi- 
dently have  not  caused  Grendel  much  disturbance  of  mind.  But 
I shall.  I shall  offer  him  battle,  and  when  the  morning  light  of 
the  second  day  shines  over  the  children  of  men,  who  will  may 
come  to  the  mead-hall  proudly  and  with  safety.”  Then  the  king 
rejoiced,  the  harps  rang,  the  heroes  laughed,  and  the  queen,  ris- 
ing, filled  a cup  with  her  own  hands  and  gave  it  to  Beowulf. 

All  this  causes  Beowulf  to  break  out  afresh  and  again  he 
boasts,  then  retires  to  rest  himself  for  his  struggle  with  Grendel. 


University  of  Oregon  Bulletin 


13 


But  before  he  could  stretch  his  limbs  upon  his  bed  he,  all  alone, 
with  no  one  by  to  hear,  boasts  again  for  eleven  lines  and  solilo- 
quizes over  the  possibilities  of  the  coming  campaign  with  GrendeL 
Finally,  commending  himself  to  God,  he  falls  asleep — to  be 
awakened  by  Grendel,  Grendel  reaching  for  him  in  the  night, 
Grendel  with  thirst  and  appetite  whetted  by  the  blood  and  body  of 
one  warrior  whom  he  had  just  slain;  Grendel,  who,  after  stalking 
over  the  misty  slopes,  stood  before  him  with  eyes  burning  with 
loathsome  light  like  to  flame,  a monstrous  shape,  his  face 
wrinkled  into  wild  contortions  of  fiendish  mirth,  his  voice  bellow- 
ing in  hellish  laughter  at  the  sight  of  so  many  who  he  thought 
would  furnish  him  much  food. 

But  Beowulf,  firm  in  mind  and  in  grip,  caught  Grendel  by 
the  hand — never  was  there  a greater  hand  grip.  Grendel, 
frightened,  sought  to  flee  into  the  outer  darkness;  but  he  could 
not.  Beowulf  held  him.  His  fingers  cracked,  the  hall  groaned. 
The  mead  benches  adorned  with  gold  were  torn  from  their  places. 
The  Danes  howled  in  terror.  The  Geats  drew  their  swords,  and 
forgetful  that  never  was  the  steel  of  sword  keen  enough  to  bite 
the  flesh  of  Grendel,  hacked  and  hewed  at  him  furiously.  Beo- 
wulf tightened  his  grasp,  he  braced,  he  pulled.  A wound 
appeared  on  Grendel’s  shoulder,  the  sinews  began  to  part.  The 
bone-frame  burst,  and,  sick  of  life,  Grendel  fled  under  the  fen 
slopes  seeking  his  joyless  abode  where  he  should  die.  What 
hosts  had  been  unable  to  do  with  sword  and  spear,  Beowulf  had 
accomplished  with  a tremendous  “pull.” 

Then  there  was  great  rejoicing,  and  on  the  morrow  Hrothgar 
ordered  a feast  and  praised  the  strength  of  Beowulf,  adopting  him 
as  his  son  and  assuring  him  that  no  wish  of  his  should  go  unsat- 
isfied if  it  were  in  Hrothgar’s  power  to  grant  it.  He  gave  Beo- 
wulf a golden  standard,  helmet  and  burnie,  a great  jeweled  sword, 
war-horses  with  golden  trappings,  and  famous  weapons.  The 
queen  eulogized  him,  and  loaded  him  with  gifts — the  mead  cup 
adorned  with  twisted  gold,  arm-ornaments,  a burnie,  rings,  a 
jewel-adorned  collar.  Beowulf  receives  all  with  becoming  mod- 
esty. The  warriors  drink,  the  harpers  play;  the  warriors  drink, 
the  scops  sing;  the  warriors  drink,  they  shout,  they  drink,  they 
laugh.  The  warriors  drink.  They  were  like  Tam  O’Shanter — 


14  University  oi  Oregon  Bulletin 

“glorious,  o’er  all  the  ills  o’  life  victorious.”  Wierd  they  knew 
not,  and  they  slept  in  the  hall  each  where  he  was  when  last 
awake.  And  the  scene  concludes  with  “that  was  a good  folk.” 

They  went  to  sleep,  but  one  sorely  paid  for  that  night’s  rest. 
Grendel’s  mother,  a terrible  woman,  nourished  her  grief  for  the 
loss  of  her  son,  till  she  came  forth,  greedy  and  raging,  from  the 
fearful  waters  that  she  inhabited,  to  avenge  his  death.  The  ter- 
ror that  she  inspired  was  less  than  that  inspired  by  Grendel  only 
by  so  .much  as  is  a woman’s  strength  less  than  a man’s.  The 
warriors  were  paralyzed  with  fear  that  increased  as  Grendel’s 
mother,  seeing  the  arm  that  Grendel  left  behind  him,  began  to 
rave  afresh.  Quickly  she  seizes  a sleeping  thane  and  hurries 
with  him  to  her  fastness  in  a dark  land  among  cliffs  of  wolves 
and  dangerous  marshes,  where  flows  a stream  that  pitches  into  a 
lake  below,  which  has  no  bottom  and  which  seethes  with  fire  on 
its  surface — an  underground  sea,  above  which  are  firmly  rooted 
forests — a haunted  place  of  boiling  waters  rising  dark,  a place  of 
hateful  storms,  a place  over  which  the  heavens  weep. 

At  morning  Beowulf  was  brought  to  the  hall,  where  Hrothgar 
acquainted  him  with  the  tragedy  of  the  preceding  night,  promis- 
ing much  additional  treasure  if  Beowulf  will  seek  out  this  second 
destroyer  and  kill  her.  The  hero  welcomes  the  task,  and  accom- 
panied by  the  king  himself  and  a band  of  warriors,  he  sets  forth, 
following  the  foot-tracks  of  the  evil-doer  on  forest  paths,  over 
murky  moors,  down  steep,  stony  slopes  and  narrow  ways,  along 
straight  single  paths  and  unknown  courses,  past  the  headlands 
high  and  sheer,  the  abodes  of  nickers  and  eotons,  until  all  at  once 
he  comes  upon  her  joyless  abode,  the  sea  that  stretches  far  and 
deep,  gory  and  seething,  under  the  ground.  There  lay  the  head 
of  the  murdered  thane.  The  flood  boiled  with  blood.  The  war- 
riors blew  their  war-horns,  and  dragons,  serpents  and  huge 
worms  turned,  writhed  and  slid  into  the  surging,  hissing  sea  be- 
low. Of  these  Beowulf  recked  not.  Girded  with  his  noble 
armor,  he  set  his  helmet  that  no  flaming  war-sword  could  bite 
firmly  on  his  head,  and  stood  ready  again  to  grip  in  battle.  Out 
stepped  Hunferth  who  had  jeered  him  at  the  banquet  and  handed 
to  the  hero  his  own  sword,  Hrunting  by  name.  Never  had  it 
failed  in  fight.  Hunferth  forgot  the  words  that  he  spoke  when 


University  of  Oregon  Bulletin 


15 


drunk  with  mead,  and  gave  his  arms  to  a warrior  whom  by  this 
act  he  acknowledged  to  be  his  own  superior.  After  a few  boast- 
ful words — for  Richard  is  always  himself  in  this  tale — Beowulf 
plunged  in  and  the  flood  took  him. 

The  poem  has  before  stated  that  this  flood  was  bottomless, 
but  after  sinking  for  a day,  Beowulf  touched  bottom  and  found, 
grim  and  greedy,  what  he  was  looking  for.  They  grappled.  She 
wounded  him.  She  gripped  her  fiendish  fingers  into  his  corselet 
and  bore  him  to  her  darkest  den  where  she  was  proof  against 
man-made  weapons.  Here  strange  sea  monsters  attacked  him. 
They  were  beaten  off.  Then  having  drawn  the  good  sword 
Hrunting,  Beowulf  struck  at  the  fiend  and  on  her  head  sounded 
the  ringed  blade  in  greedy  war-song.  But  lo  ! she  was  uninjured. 
Hrunting  had  failed.  Enraged  he  cast  from  him  the  jeweled 
sword  and  sprang  at  her  with  nothing  but  his  hands  for  weapons. 
He  hurled  her  to  the  floor.  Again  she  wounded  him  with  her 
claws,  and,  with  her  short  sword,  struck  him  an  avenging  blow, 
but  the  sword’s  edge  turned  upon  Beowulf’s  burnie.  Then 
having  seen  among  a pile  of  swords  an  old  weapon  giant-forged, 
Beowulf  seized  the  chained  hilt,  brandished  the  ringed  sword,  and 
in  despair  struck.  The  edge  bit  on  her  neck.  Her  bone-rings 
broke.  The  steel  pierced  through  her  fated  body  and  she  fell. 
The  hero  turned  glad  in  triumph  and  saw  the  body  of  Grendel, 
his  first  foe,  lying  dead  on  the  floor.  In  passion  he  smote  off 
Grendel’s  head.  Into  the  flood  the  blood  welled  forth,  and  the 
warriors  on  the  shore  above,  when  they  saw  the  tide  stained  with 
red,  the  waves  stirring  the  clotted  gore,  mourned  and  forsook  the 
place  weening  that  Beowulf,  their  dear  lord  was  no  more.  But 
he  was  safe  and  was  soon  swimming  up  through  the  water  glad  in 
mood,  bearing  the  head  of  Grendel.  The  thanes  looked  back 
and  saw  him  and  turned  to  meet  him  with  welcoming  shouts. 
He  brought  not  with  him  the  sword  of  the  giants,  for  the  poison 
of  the  blood  into  which  it  had  cut  had  melted  it  away  to  the  hilt 
in  Beowulf’s  hands  before  he  left  the  pool.  The  hilt  he  gave  to 
Hrothgar  after  relating  his  adventure  at  the  bottom  of  the  mere. 
Then  in  spite  of  entreaty  to  remain  he  and  his  attendants  turned 
the  prow  of  their  ship  homeward,  laden  with  gold  and  treasure. 

Upon  Beowulf’s  arrival  among  his  homefolk,  the  Geats,  he 


16 


University  oi  Oregon  Bulletin 


is  welcomed  with  feasts  and  banquets  and  praised  by  his  king  for 
the  bravery  and  valor  displayed  in  his  combats  in  the  land  of 
Hrothgar,  the  Dane,  about  all  of  which  Beowulf  has  told  the  king. 

Upon  the  king’s  death,  Beowulf  wore  the  crown  and  wore  it 
well  for  fifty  winters.  He  was  aged.  -He  ruled  well  a happy  peo- 
ple— happy,  till  a dragon,  who  on  a high  heath  guarded  a treasure 
cave  in  a steep,  stony  mountain,  enraged,  because  of  a theft 
committed  by  one  of  Beowulf’s  subjects,  wrought  great  woe. 
With  flame  and  fire  provided  the  dragon  went  forth  breathing 
destruction  upon  the  bright  dwellings  of  the  Geats.  There  was 
naught  living  that  the  hateful  “air-flyer”  was  willing  to  leave. 
The  terror  was  quickly  made  known  to  Beowulf  who,  distressed, 
his  breast  swelled  with  gloomy  thoughts,  as  was  to  him  not  usual, 
prepared  for  the  contest  with  the  fire-drake.  He  bade  to  be 
fashioned  a wonderful  war  shield,  all  made  of  iron,  knowing  well 
that  wood  could  not  withstand  the  flames  of  the  dragon’s  breath. 
He  feared  not  the  contest  but  his  soul  was  sad.  Wierd  was  very 
nigh.  With  a band  of  twelve  he  sought  out  the  treasure  cave 
and  its  dragon  keeper.  Beowulf  spake  with  boastful  words,  spake 
for  the  last  time.  “I  survived  many  wars  in  my  youth,  and  now 
I will — the  guardian  of  the  old — the  contest  seek,  with  honor 
work,  if  me  the  fell  foe  from  his  earth-hall  dare  seek  out.” 
“This  is  no  coward’s  work,”  he  continues,  and  advancing  alone 
against  the  demon  smites  him  a fearful  blow  with  his  mighty 
sword  “so  that  the  edge  softened.”  The  dragon  fierce  belched 
forth  the  death-fire.  Far  and  wide  spread  the  flame  of  battle. 
Beowulf’s  sword  failed  as  it  should  not,  but  Wierd  would  not  per- 
mit him  to  triumph  in  battle.  Again  the  fierce  ones  met  in 
strife.  Beowulf,  surrounded  by  fire,  was  in  sore  distress.  His 
retainers  stood  fearing — till  one  braver  than  the  rest,  rushed 
through  the  flame  to  the  help  of  his  lord — after  a long  harangue 
of  thirty  lines  to  his  followers — -and  announced  to  Beowulf  his 
intention — in  about  fifty  words — of  assisting  Beowulf.  Upon 
them  both  the  angry  worm  came,  the  terrible  demon  “again 
seeking  with  fire-waves  to  consume  his  foes.”  The  flame  billows 
burned  the  shield  to  the  rim.  Beowulf’s  sword  broke  in  two 
from  his  powerful  blows.  Then  mindful  of  his  former  strength, 
he  rushed  upon  the  monster  and  grasped  him  about  his  sharp 


University  oi  Oregon  Bulletin 


17 


and  bony  neck.  With  hand  burning  and  life  blood  pouring  he 
reached  for  his  war-knife  and  cut  the  serpent  in  two. 

But  this  was  Beowulf’s  last  triumph.  The  wound  that  the 
fire-drake  had  before  inflicted  began  to  burn  and  to  swell  so  that 
he  soon  perceived  that  in  his  breast  deadly  welled  the  poison. 
He  seated  himself  on  a stone,  bloody,  wearied  with  battle  and 
deathly  pale.  He  knew  that  he  had  spent  his  allotted  time  of  joy 
on  earth.  He  asked  his  retainers  to  bring  before  him  the  dragon’s 
treasure.  Upon  returning  from  the  cave,  his  warriors  found 
their  lord  faint  and  bleeding.  They  revived  him  with  dashes  of 
cold  water  till  he  could  speak  to  them  again.  He  gave  the 
treasure  to  his  people  and  requested  that  they  make  a mound, 
bright  after  the  funeral  pile,  at  the  sea’s  point  which  should  be 
called  Beowulf’s  mound.  Then  from  his  breast  went  his  soul  to 
seek  the  judgment  of  the  saints.  Again  they  sought  to  revive 
him,  but  in  vain. 

Such  is  the  story  of  Beowulf.  The  poem  is  a strange  ming- 
ling of  heathen  saga  and  Christian  sentiment,  superstitious  fear 
and  undaunted  courage.  In  spite  of  its  numerous  passages  of 
Christian  coloring,  it  is  distinctly  heathen.  Among  the  facts  that 
may  be  gleaned  from  it— facts  that  if  we  had  no  other  evidence 
we  would  know — are  that  the  Anglo-Saxons  as  early  as  the  sixth 
century  had  courts  and  court  observances,  that  they  met  for  great 
feasting  occasions  tn  meed  or  beer  halls.  Their  very  word  for 
banquet  is  “ gebeorscipe,”  which  being  interpreted  is  “beer 
ship.”  We  learn  that  they  had  servants  regularly  appointed  to 
perform  specific  duties,  that  they  were  a musical  people  and  that 
no  feast  was  complete  without  song,  nor  no  king  complete  with- 
out his  scop  or  minstrel. 

We  learn  that  they  possessed  ideas  concerning  the  final 
disposition  of  their  semi-divinities  similar  to  those  held  by  the 
Hebrews  regarding  the  supernatural  disappearances  of  some 
of  their  prophets.  We  learn  that  they  maintained  the  cus- 
topn  of  payment  for  offenses  by  certain  fees  or  fines,  and  that 
even  a human  life  had  its  specific  valuation.  We  know  that 
they  possessed  a philosophy  that  numbers  millions  of  adherents 
even  in  this  day  and  generation.  And  finally  we  learn  that  the 
English  language  possesses  a great  poem  older  than  any  of  its 


18 


University  ot  Oregon  Bulletin 


Teutonic  sisters,  richer  in  its  beauty,  more  rugged  in  its  jgrandeur, 
more  simple  and  direct  in  its  telling,  with  passages  as  lofty  as 
those  of  Homer,  scenes  as  dramatic  as  those  of  Virgil  and 
descriptions  as  vivid  as  those  of  Dante. 

In  all  its  variety  it  is  uniformly  masculine.  Woman  appears 
in  its  lines,  but  nowhere  prominent  enough  to  take  the  mind  away 
from  the  pervading  spirit  of  the  masculine.  Nowhere  does  she 
appear  as  an  instrument  of  the  deities  to  interfere  with  the  or- 
dained lives  of  the  men  of  the  Beowulf.  Woman  is  given  her 
place — an  honorable  place — whenever  she  is  mentioned,  but  the 
men  are  not  distracted  from  their  pursuits  or  drawn  into  strife  on 
her  account  as  in  the  Iliad  of  Homer  where  Helen  of  Troy  cre- 
ates domestic  troubles  of  unprecedented  proportions,  brings  woe 
to  warriors  and  death  to  many  heroes.  Beowulf  does  not  delight 
in  the  caresses  that  Virgil  in  his  Aeneid  dispenses  to  Aeneas 
from  the  arms  of  Queen  Dido.  Nor  do  we  find  accounts  of  pun- 
ishment for  sinful  amours  that  Dante’s  poem  records.  There  is 
not  one  stroke  of  the  brush  to  cloud  the  holiness  of  motherhood — 
not  one  line  that  makes  of  naught  the  obligations  of  wifehood — 
not  one  insinuating  word  against  the  innocent  purity  of  maiden- 
hood— not  one  breath  that  would  dim  the  radiant  lustre  that 
shines  from  and  crowns  the  nobility  of  womanhood. 

The  poem  is  not  softened  by  any  touches  of  child  life.  In 
the  Iliad,  as  the  warrior  goes  to  battle,  he  kisses  his  wife  farewell 
and  bends  lower  to  kiss  the  child  that  nestles  in  the  mother’s 
arms.  But  the  child  is  frightened  at  the  war-like  appearance  of 
the  father,  especially  at  the  helmet  crowned  with  a great  gray 
plume  that  nods  and  bends  so  terrifyingly  and  threateningly  that 
the  child  draws  back  in  fear.  The  father  understands  and  smiles 
as  he  removes  his  helmet  and  again  stoops  to  kiss  the  babe  that 
this  time  does  not  shrink,  but  reaches  up  his  dimpled  arms  to 
assist  in  the  ceremony.  The  Aeneid  also  pictures  here  and 
there  the  solicitude  of  the  elders  for  the  little  Julius.  But  the 
Beowulf  is  a poem  of  manhood. 

Though  epic  in  quality  it  is  an  anthem  of  forest,  crag,  cliff, 
sea,  fen  and  shore.  Not  the  whirring,  fluttering  murmur  that 
faintly  stirs  the  air  and  floats  off  lightly  through  the  firs,  uncer- 
tain tremulous,  high  in  the  trees,  a soft,  shy  rustling  quivering  on 


University  of  Oregon  Bulletin 


19 


the  breeze,  a song  that  flings  its  mounting  measure  from  branch 
to  branch  or  passes  from  twig  to  needle-tip  in  murmurings  som- 
nolent and  soothing;  droning  slumbrous,  dreamy,  drowsy,  low- 
sung  things;  not  that. 

It  is  another  surging  song  that  springs 

With  sudden  swirls,  then  swells  and  sweeps  the  strings 

Of  a hundred  hidden  h&rps — that  wildly  wings, 

That  shrieks  and  swoops,  soars,  whirls  and  swings 
The  forest  through  in  frenzied  riotings. 

The  song  in  which  the  pine  defies  the  sea, 

A challenge — Strip  me  of  branches.  Give  me  spars 
And  rope-bound,  sail-wrapped,  winter  stars 
Flashing  their  lances  through  the  frozen  air 
Shall  see  me  borne  by  swiftly  scudding  keel 
Before  the  furious  blast,  standing  all  staunch 
In  spite  of  strain  and  tug  and  desperate  plunge 
True  to  my  ship,  its  captain  and  its  crew. 


University  ol  Oregon  Bulletin 


21 


CYNEWULF  AND  HIS  GREATEST 

POEM 


Each  of  us  has  his  own  peculiar  misfortune.  With  one 
it  is  excess  of  riches.  With  another,  it  is  poverty.  One  has 
too  many  friends,  while  another  may  suffer  because  he  has  none. 
Dr.  Johnson  might  have  considered  the  attention  of  Boswell  as 
a misfortune;  but  with  Cynewulf  it  was  the  lack  of  a Boswell  that 
we  must  consider  his  great  misfortune,  for  beyond  a few  facts 
gleaned  from  a few  poems  that  he  signed  in  runic  characters*, 
nothing  is  definitely  known  concerning  the  life  of  the  greatest 
Christian  poet  of  the  Anglo-Saxons.  Many  articles  have  been 
written!,  the  greater  number  by  German  critics,  which  are  full 
of  speculation  and  conjecture.  Attempts  have  been  made  to 
identify  him  with  historical  characters  of  the  same  name,  but 
these  have  not  been  successful,  nor  have  those  other  efforts  that 
pretend  to  give  an  account  of  his  life  from  his  infancy  to  his 
death  been  considered  more  than  ingenious  inventions. 

If  we  accept  the  theory  that  Cynewulf  was  born  fifteen  or 
twenty  years  before  the  death  of  Bede,  which  is  given  as  occur- 
ring in  735,  the  poet  must  have  been  born,  at  some  time 
between  715  and  720  A.  D.  Exactly  when,  no  one  yet  knows 
The  conditions  in  England  during  the  years  prior  to  his  birth 
and  also  during  his  life  were  characterized  by  constant  change. 
This  was  particularly  true  of  the  political  conditions.!  In  the 
south,  Ceolred’s§  war  against  Wessex  had  followed  Aethelred’s 
peaceful  reign  of  thirty  years  and  the  abdication  of  Ine,  king  of 

*Since  this  curious  signature  might  be  of  interest,  I give  it  here  as  it  ap- 
pears translated  from  the  poem  , with  the  words  supposed  to  be  represented 
by  each  letter:— K,  Cene;  Y,  Yfel;  N,  Nyd;  W,  Wyn:  U,  Ur;  L,  Lagu;  F,  Feoh. 
These  rrnan  respectively:—  keen,  evil,  need,  jov,  us,  fortune. 

t A small  bibliography  is  given  by  B.  Ten  Brink  in  his  “English  Litera- 
ture,” Vol.  1,  Appendix  B.  A very  full  treatment  of  the  theories  concerning 
“Cynewulf”  may  be  found  in  the  “The  Christ  of  Cynewulf”  [Cook]  pub- 
lished by  Ginn  & Co.,  Boston. 

+A  more  detailed  account  of  the  political  history  of  these  years  may  be 
found  in  Green’s  “Short  History  of  the  English  people. 

§Ceolred  was  king  of  Mercia. 


22  University  oi  Oregon  Bulletin 

Wessex  (726),  out  of  sheer  disgust  at  the  vacillating  tendency 
of  his  subjects’  loyalty,  left  Wessex  at  the  mercy  of  Ceolred’s 
successor,  Ethelbald.  The  king  came  to  the  throne  in  716, 
after  Ceolred’s  tragic  death  at  his  own  board.  During  the  years 
between  716  and  726,  Ethelbald  refrained  from  war.  but  when 
Ine  removed  from  the  scene,  the  prejudice  that  Ethelbald  had 
against  war  also  disappeared  and  war  began — to  last  for  over 
twenty  years  in  a desultory  way.  In  754,  however,  his  troubled 
and  troublesome  reign  began  its  conclusion.  Ethelbald’s  entire 
force  was  arrayed  against  Wessex.  The  battle  was  raging.  The 
issue  was  doubtful.  Victory  might  perch  upon  either  banner; 
but  suddenly,  in  the.  midst  of  brilliant  and  valorous  action,  Ethel- 
bald turned  and  foremost  fled.  Three  years  later,  a company  of 
his  own  ealdormen  slew  him. 

In  the  North,  however,  in  Cynewulf’s  country,  the  situation 
was  different.  Ecgfrith,  son  of  Oswin  did  not  care  for  war. 
There  was  to  be  a season  of  comparative  peace  in  which  North- 
umbria should  stride  to  the  throne  of  intellectual  supremacy  in 
England.  There  were,  to  be  sure,  a few  minor  struggles  with  the 
Piets  and  Scots  just  over  the  Northern  border;  and  once 
Wulfhere  attacked  Ecgfrith  from  the  South,  but  these  engage- 
ments only  resulted  in  additional  territory  for  Northumbria. 

But  after  some  years,  there  came  a greater  rising  of  these 
Piets  and  Scots,  in  685,  and  “ in  a few  days  more  a solitary 
fugitive  escaped  from  the  slaughter  told  * * * that 

Ecgfrith  and  the  flower  of  his  nobles,  lay  a ghastly  ring  of  corpses 
on  the  far-off  Moorland  of  Nectausmere.”* 

During  the  reign  of  Aldfrith,  the  Learned,  and  his  four  suc- 
cessors, Northumbria  really  laid  aside  the  sword  for  the  pen  and 
became  the  center  of  intellectual  activity  in  western  Europe.  But 
after  Bede’s  death,  the  storm  of  human  folly  and  passion  again 
burst  forth  and  Northumbria  exchanged  her  greatness  for  fifty 
years  of  revolt,  treason  and  anarchy. 

And  now  that  we  have  turned  for  a moment  to  look  into  the 
unsettled  politics  of  Cynewulf's  England  and  have  located  the 
poet’s  advent  into  these  troubled  conditions  as  exactly  as  possible, 
we  will  pause  only  for  a glance  at  the  religious  conditions  of  the 

* Green’s  “Short  History  of  English  People.” 


University  ot  Oregon  Bulletin 


23 


country  before  proceeding  with  our  discussion  of  Cynewulf. 
Christianity  was  making  headway  against  all  opposition,  but  the 
fierceness  of  opposition  had  made  Anglo-Saxon  martyrs.  The 
new  religion  was  comparatively  well  established  before  Cynewulf’s 
time,  but  the  memory  of  its  struggles  against  the  old  for  suprem- 
acy was  yet  fresh  enough  in  the  minds  of  English  Christians  to 
act  as  an  inspiration  to  great  zeal.  The  convert  wanted  to  cele- 
brate his  conversion  by  doing  something.  If  he  were  a king,  he 
sought  the  conversion  of  his  people,  or  donated  the  site  for  a 
monastery  or  cathedral.  Some  would  copy  manuscripts,  others 
would  make  missionary  pilgrimages.  The  daughter  of  a king 
would  become  a nun  and  realized  her  greatest  ambition  when  she 
reached  the  high  place  of  abbess.  If  the  convert  were  of  hum- 
bler station  and  without  remarkable  gifts,  he  would  if  possible 
connect  himself  with  an  abbey  or  monastery  and  perform  menial 
tasks  for  those  above  him  as  we  are  told  Caedmon  did  before  he 
received  the  gift  of  song.  But  if  the  new  believer  already  pos- 
sessed poetic  ability,  he  would,  after  his  conversion  confine  his 
efforts  to  religious  themes. 

And  now  we  come  to  Cynewulf.  It  is  perfectly  safe  to  say 
that  this  Northumbrian  poet,  in  common  with  many  English 
poets  of  later  years,  had  two  periods  of  literary  activity — one  of 
youth,  the  other  of  maturity. 

There  is  a sweet-voiced  band  of  singers  known  as  the  seven- 
teenth century  lyrists.  These  poets  wrote  in  most  instances  two 
kinds  of  verse — secular  and  sacred.  Their  secular  verse  is  not 
supposed  to  be  the  result  of  or  conducive  to  any  great  amount  of 
spirituality.  It  was  the  song  of  their  full-blooded,  strongly  puls- 
ing youth  in  days  when  differences  in  personal  tastes  and  opinions 
were  adjusted  by  the  sword.  Their  sacred  verse,  however,  was 
the  result  of  a clear  vision  of  the  vanity  of  worldly  folly  and  was 
redolent  with,  or  at  least  intimated  the  advisability  of  piety.  And 
why  should  not  years  bring  wisdom  and  experience  a riper  judg- 
ments 

Now  in  the  same  manner  did  the  poetry  of  the  youthful 
Cynewulf  differ  from  that  written  by  Cynewulf  the  maturer  man. 
In  his  youth  he  was  probably  a wandering  minstrel*  or  glee-man, 


*Ten  Brink  and  Brooke  incline  to  this  opinion. 


24 


University  oi  Oregon  Bulletin 


easy,  careless,  “wicked,”  he  later  describes  himself,  who  saw 
the  varying  aspects  of  the  life  about  him,  who  was  of  that  life, 
and  who  wrote  of  the  things  he  saw  as  he  saw  them.  The  liter- 
ary work  of  these  early  years  is  represented  by  the  “Riddles,” 
eighty-nine  in  all,  whose  popularity  was  made  possible  by  the 
wondering  attitude  of  a race  that  naturally  viewed  nature  as  an 
enemy,  that  but  lately  had  forsaken  its  philosophy  of  fatalism  and 
now  was  evolving  slowly,  carefully,  thoughtfully,  and  with  ques- 
tionings into  a people  striving  toward  a unity  of  new  purpose, 
begotten  by  the  comparatively  new  influence  that  eventually 
changed  the  entire  philosophy  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race. 

The  broad  field  of  subjects  covered  by  these  Riddles  and  his 
apparent  familiarity  with  each  subject  indicates  that  the  career 
of  their  propounder  must,  indeed,  have  been  varied.  It  would 
hardly  have  been  possible  for  one  who  had  not  had  opportunities 
for  close  observation  and  experience  to  have  treated  subjects  of 
war,  of  agriculture,  birds,  beasts,  musical  instruments  and  tem- 
pests with  the  skill  and  sympathy  that  Cynewulf  displayed  in  his 
riddles  on  the  sword,  the  shield,  the  coat  of  mail,  the  battering- 
ram;  the  helmet;  the  plow,  the  rake  the  loon;  the  nightingale,  the 
falcon,  the  swan;  the  ox,  the  badger,  the  bull,  and  the  stag;  the 
horn;  the  reed  flute;  the  storm  on  land,  the  storm  on  sea.  and  the 
hurricanes.  But  a change  came  upon  this  life  of  happy  wander- 
ing. Its  attractive  glitter  vanished.  Travel  held  no  longer  the 
charm  of  vanity.  Princely  patronage  paled  into  insignificance 
before  the  desire  of  divine  approval.  The  agency  that  brought 
about  this  change  was  a vision — a vision  of  the  Rood.  Stricken 
with  remorse  over  wasted  years,  inspired  by  the  completeness  of 
a pardon  that  could  cover  all  transgression,  desiring  to  atone,  in 
some  degree,  for  youthful  wickedness,  Cynewulf  turned  the  course 
of  his  song  into  more  serious  channels,  and  applied  himself  to 
scriptural  themes  and  ecclesiastical  traditions  which  he  brought 
forth  adorned  in  verse  “with  much  sweetness  and  inspiration.” 
His  greatest  poem  is  “Christ.” 

The  introduction  to  the  poem  “Christ”  has  been  lost,  but 
the  first  word  “Kyninge”  [to  the  King]  is  as  eloquent  an  introduc- 
tion as  the  poem  needs. 


University  ot  (trefoil  Bulletin 


25 


*****  To  the  King 
Thou  art  the  wall  stone,  that  the  workers  once 
Rejected  from  the  work:  Well  it  beseemeth  thee 
That  thou  shouldst  be  the  head  of  the  noble  hall 
And  join  together  with  firm  fastening 
The  spacious  walls  with  flint  unbroken 
So  that  throughout  earth’s  cities  all  things  seeing 
May  wonder  forever.  0 Lord  of  Glory  ! 

With  such  a song  of  adoration  opens  the  first  of  the  five 
parts  of  the  “Nativity,”  itself  the  first  of  the  three  divisions  of 
the  Christian  poem,  “Christ,”  attributed  to  Cynewulf.  And  the 
vigor  of  faith,  the  worshipful  spirit,  the  deep  pervading  reverence 
indicates  that  in  Anglo-Saxon,  England,  some  where,  two  cen- 
turies of  Christianity  had  been  centuries  of  amazing  spiritual 
growth.  Yes — even  less  than  two  centuries  measured  the  time 
from  that  condition  where  Wyrd  was  “o’er  all  and  ruled  all”  to 
the  era  which  acknowledged  the  “Eternal  Creator”  as  the  “Lord 
of  Glory”  and  the  “Shaper  of  Earth,”  the  “Ruler  of  Men.” 

Following  these  opening  lines  is  an  appeal  from  humanity  to 
the  Father,  as  from  one  who  “ in  prison  sits  yearning  for  the 
sun’s  bright  course,”  for  mercy  toward  the  race  which,  by  the 
coming  of  his  son  has  been  saved  when  it  was  all  depraved. 
With  exclamations  of  wonder  at  the  immaculate  conception,  invo- 
cation for  blessings  to  rest  upon  the  “Holy  Citadel  of  Christ,” 
“Jerusalem”  and  rejoicings  that  the  words  of  the  prophets  have 
been  fulfilled,  that  the  works  of  the  Hebrews  are  to  be  destroyed, 
joy  to  be  brought  to  the  children  of  men  and  their  bonds  to  be 
loosened,  the  poet  closes  the  first  part  of  his  work  and  launches 
into  the  second  with  a glowing  address  to  the  Virgin.  He  would 
know  the  mystery  surrounding  the  immaculate  conception  and 
birth  of  Christ,  and  the  Virgin  though  she  answers  to  his  speech, 
does  not  answer  his  question  further  than  to  say  that,  “Verily,  to 
men  is  the  mystery  not  known,”  but  that  since  Christ  was  born 
of  woman,  the  curse  against  Eve  has  been  overthrown  and  that 
man  and  woman  alike  may  have  the  hope  for  eternal  salvation. 

The  third  section  opens  with  a dialogue  between  Mary  and 
Joseph  which  indicates  very  plainly  that  the  mystery  shrouding 
the  birth  of  the  Savior  has  puzzled  the  minds  of  men  before  our 


26  University  oi  Oregon  Bulletin 

century.  The  faith  of  Joseph  has  been  shaken  by  the  taunts  and 
ridicule  of  his  neighbors  and  Mary,  troubled,  asks,  “Must  thou 
forthwith  renounce  thy  troth  and  leave  thy  love?”  Joseph  in  his 
reply  tells  how  hateful  speeches,  scorn  and  contempt  have  been 
his  portion  beyond  his  ability  to  endure  longer. 

“ ’Tis  everywhere  known  that  from  the  glorious  temple  of  the 
Lord  I joyfully  received  a pure  maiden  and  spotless;  and  now  all 
is  changed  through  whom  I know  not.  It  avails  me  nothing 
either  to  speak  or  to  be  silent.”  Mary  in  return  reasserts  her 
innocence  of  any  crime,  asserts  her  fidelity  to  Joseph  and  tells 
him  how  that  when  she  was  but  a child,  Gabriel,  the  archangel, 
told  her,  in  a vision,  that  she  should  bring  forth  an  illustrious  son, 
begotten  of  heaven,  the  mighty  child  of  God,  of  the  bright  Creator. 
She  bids  Joseph  dismiss  his  foreboding  and  rejoice  that  he  is 
the  earthly  father  of  such  a son. 

Then  the  poet  ascribes  honor  and  glory  to  the  King  of 
Heaven  for  his  power  to  work  wonders  from  the  time  when  the 
command  “Let  there  be  light”  fell  from  his  lips,  to  the  time 
when  he  sent  his  own  son  into  the  world  incarnate  in  human 
flesh.  The  coming  of  that  son,  brought  to  man  his  chance  for 
salvation.  Man  had  been  lost. 

“The  accursed  wolf,  beast  of  darkness,  hath  scattered  thy 
flock,  oh  Lord,  hath  dispersed  it  far  and  wide.  * .*  * Where- 

fore Savior  we  pray  thee  earnestly  with  our  inmost  thoughts  that 
thou  speedily  grant  help  unto  us,  weary  wretches,  that  the  mind’s 
destroyer  may  fall  low  down  to  hell's  abyss  and  that  thy  handi- 
work, Creator  of  men,  may  then  arise  and  come  aright  unto  the 
noble  realm  above  in  heaven  whence  erst  the  swart  spirit, 
through  our  love  for  sin  beguiled  and  misled  us,  so  that  void  of 
glory,  we  must  ever  eternally  bear  misery  unless  thou  Eternal 
Lord,  living  God,  Helm  of  all  created  things,  wilt  free  us 
the  more  speedily  from  man's  destroyer.” 

The  fourth  and  fifth  sections  of  the  Nativity  are  prolonged 
apostrophes  to  the  Virgin  and  the  Holy  Trinity  respectively,  and 
breath  forth  a spirit  of  devotion  that  is  as  eloquent  as  it  seems 
sincere.  The  ideas  contained  are  not  at  variance  with  those  of 
the  orthodox  churchmen  of  today — that  is,  those  held  by  the 
orthodox  Catholic  churchmen,  for  Protestantism  was  not 


University  of  Oregon  Bulletin 


27 


dreamed  of  when  this  poem  was  written.  The  virtues  and  power 
of  Mary  form  themes  over  which  the  poet  becomes  exultant  and 
to  the  efficiency  of  which,  through  the  intercession  with  the  Son 
and  the  Father,  he  appeals  in  repeated  prayers  for  mercy  for  a 
fallen  race  whose  soul,  in  bonds,  cries  out  for  life  and  light. 
Faith  is  triumphant.  And  in  the  poet’s  celebration  of  the  Trinity, 
the  picture  of  the  shining  throne  supporting  the  Almighty  Ruler, 
cherubim  and  seraphim,  angels  wrapt  in  harmony  and  beating 
with  their  wings,  pressing,  hovering  as  near  their  Lord  as  possi- 
ble, fluttering,  soaring,  swinging  and  sweeping  exultantly  in 
clouds  about  the  throne  of  the  Lamb,  ecstatic  in  their  happiness 
and  crying,  "‘Holy,  holy,  art  thou,  Lord  almighty” — this  pictures 
a scene  as  splendid  as  anything  that  modern  poetry  and  song  have 
to  offer  us  in  describing  the  glory  and  beauty  of  that  etty  built 
without  hands,  eternal  in  the  heavens. 

After  his  death  and  burial,  he  comes  forth  and  in  the  first 
part  of  “The  Ascension,”  ere  he  hastens  to  his  Father’s  Realm, 
Christ  recompenses  in  words  of  cheer  his  beloved  comrades: — 

“Rejoice  ye  in  spirit.  Ne’er  will  I turn  away  but  1 will  show 
my  love  toward  you  ever  and  grant  you  might  and  abide  with  you 
ever  to  all  eternity,  and  through  my  grace  ye  shall  never  know 
the  want  of  sustenance.  Go  now  o’er  all  the  spacious  earth,,  o’er 
the  wide  ways,  announce  to  men,  preach  and  proclaim  the  bright 
belief  and  baptize  folk  beneath  the  skies,  turn  them  to  heaven. 
Break  idols,  cast  them  down  and  hate  them.  Extinguish  enmity, 
sow  peace  in  minds  of  men  by  virtue  of  your  powers.  I will  ever 
stay  with  you  in  solace,  and  will  keep  you  in  peace  with  stead- 
fast strength  in  every  place.”  Then  suddenly  a sound  was 
heard,  loud  in  the  air,  a band  of  heavenly  angels,  the  messengers 
of  glory,  a beauteous  host  in  legion  came;  our  King  departed 
through  the  temple’s  roof,  where  they  beheld,  they  who  watched 
the  dear  One's  track,  the  chosen  thanes,  there  in  the  meeting 
place  they  saw  the  Lord,  the  child  divine  ascend  from  earth 
into  the  heights. 

Sad  in  soul,  grief  burning  hot  within  their  hearts,  the  disci- 
ples stand  watching,  gazing,  when  suddenly  from  the  angelic 
hosts,  resplendent,  rejoicing  and  joying  in  the  glory  of  the  light 
that  gleams  from  the  Savior’s  brow,  there  bursts  a song  raptur- 


28  l niversity  ol  Oregon  Hulletin 

ous,  ecstatic,  praising  the  Creator,  the  glory  of  all  kings  and  out 
from  the  song  comes  high  and  clear,  “Why  bide  ye  here  and 
stand  about,  ye  Galilean  men?  Now  see  ye  the  true  King,  the 
Lord  of  Victory,  manifestly  wending  to  the  skies.  The  chief  of 
princes  with  their  hosts  of  angels,  the  Lord  of  all  mankind,  up 
from  hence  will  soar  unto  his  native  home,  His  Father-land.” 

The  account  here  given  does  not  follow  closely  that  of  any  of 
the  four  gospels,  but  resembles  the  one  found  in  Luke  perhaps 
more  than  that  found  in  any  of  the  others.  The  poet  speaks  of 
Christ’s  passing  up  through  the  temple  roof.  But  it  is  not  probable 
that  he  meant  any  thing  other  than  a figurative  expression  for  the 
sky.  St.  Luke  mentions  that  Christ  lead  the  disciples  out  of  Jeru- 
salem to  Bethany  and  there  was  caught  up  from  among  them. 
But  in  none  of  the  four  gospels  is  there  an  attendant  band  of 
heavenly  retainers.  The  poet  supplies  the  deficiency. 

After  the  ascension,  the  disciples  turn  back  to  Jerusalem. 
“There  was  unbroken  weeping.  Their  faithful  hearts  were  over- 
whelmed with  grief.” 

At  this  point,  in  the  second  section  of  the  ascension,  the 
poet  introduces  an  explanation  of  the  presence  of  that  band  of 
angels. 

There  was  an  apocryphal  tradition  to  the  effect  that,  when 
Christ  was  buried,  he  descended  into  hell,  bound  Satan  and 
released  the  captive  souls  in  Satan's  kingdom.  This  tradition  is 
spoken  of  as  “The  Harrowing  of  Hell”  and  is  a part  of  the 
apocryphal  gospel  of  Nicodemus*. 

A curiosity  contained  in  the  fourth  section  of  the  ascension 
is  a poetic  setting  of  a comment  found  in  one  of  Gregory’s 
homilies  on  the  passage  in  the  “Song  of  Solomon”  in  which 
Christ  is  spoken  of  as  coming  “leaping  upon  the  mountains, 
skipping  upon  the  hills.”  Gregory  gives  the  number  of  leaps  as 
six  and  so  does  Cynewulf  and  defines  them  in  twenty-two  inter- 
esting lines,  the  first  being  his  incarnation,  the  second,  his  birth; 
the  third,  the  crucifixion;  the  fourth,  the  burial;  the  fifth,  the  Har- 
rowing of  Hell;  the  sixth,  the  ascension. 


* The  Anglo-Saxon  gospel  of  Nieodemus  has  been  edited  by  Mr.  W.  H, 
Hulme  and  mav  be  found  in  the  "Publications  of  the  Modern  Language 
Association  of  America.”  Vol.  XIII,  No.  4-,  1898. 


L'nivci  sity  oi  Oregon  Bulletin 


29 


Ascension  Pt.  Ill  recounts  the  reasons  why  it  is  fitting  that 
the  tribes  of  men  should  give  thanks  to  God.  “He  giveth  us 
food  and  fullness  of  possessions,  wealth  over  the  spacious  earth, 
and  gentle  weather  under  the  heaven’s  protection;  sun  and  moon, 
noblest  of  lights,  heaven’s  candles,  shine  for  all  men  on  the  earth 
alike,  dew  falleth  and  rain;  they  call  forth  abundance  to  nourish 
life  for  all  the  race  of  men,  earth’s  riches  increase!  ” But  most 
of  all  should  we  give  thanks  and  praise  for  the  hope  of  salvation 
which  Christ  gave  to  us  at  his  ascension.  The  ancient  decree, 
“ I wrought  thee  on  earth  and  on  it  shalt  thou  live  in  want,  shalt 
dwell  in  toil,  and  await  vengeance,  shalt  sing  the  death-song  for 
thy  foes’  delight,  and  shalt  be  turned  again  to  that  same  earth 
with  worms  o’er  charged,  whence  thou  shalt  seek  thereafter  the 
fire  of  punishment,” — has  been  averted  and  provision,  by  the 
atonement,  has  been  made  for  our  soul’s  peace.  Further,  God’s 
spirit  son  has  ennobled  us  and  given  us  gifts.  “To  one  he  send- 
eth  from  memory’s  seat  the  charm  of  wise  words.  * # * He 

can  sing  and  say  full  many  things  within  whose  soul  is  hidden  the 
power  of  wisdom.  One  can  # # wake  the  harp  and 

greet  the  glee  beam;  one  can  expound  aright  the  law  divine;  one 
can  tell  the  constellation’s  course;  # # * one  can  cunning- 

ly write  the  spoken  word;  to  one  he  giveth  battle  speed,  when  in 
the  fight  the  shooters  send  the  storm  of  darts,  swift  flying  arrow 
work  over  the  shield's  defense;  one  can  boldly  o’er  the  salt  sea 
drive  the  ocean  wood  and  stir  the  water’s  rush;  one  can  ascend 
the  lofty  steep:  another  can  work  the  steeled  sword  and  weapon; 
while  yet  another  knoweth  the  plains’  direction  and  the  wide 
ways.”  To  any  one  will  not  all  of  these  gifts  be  made  lest  pride 
injure  him. 

Pt.  V anticipates  the  third  section — Judgment.  On  account 
of  all  these  gifts  and  mercies,  sore  will  fare  the  one  that  keepeth 
not  the  commands  of  the  Savior.  Terror  will  fill  the  heart  of 
him  who  hath  not  kept  the  words  of  the  Prince  of  Glory,  when  he 
cometh  a second  time  to  judge  the  earth.  Quaking  and  fearful 
shall  they  await  the  wrath  of  Him  whom  worlds  obey,  shall  see 
their  earthly  gifts  and  laurels  consumed  in  the  fire  that  shall  rage 
and  stride  fiercely  with  its  ruddy  flame,  bright  and  swift,  over  the 
wide  world.  Plains  shall  crumble,  citadels  crash,  ancient  treas- 


30 


I'nivcrsity  oi  Oregon  bulletin 

ures  rise  in  smoke.  God’s  kindness  to  man  during  probation, 
abused,  will  turn  to  sternness  and  wrath.  The  heavens  shall  shake 
and  earth  shall  wail.  Crime  stained  mortals  shall  be  purged  in 
fire,  in  a bath  of  flames.  The  cry  of  mourning,  the  terror  of 
man  shall  mingle  with  the  noises  of  the  heavens,  and  he  who  is 
sinning  would  gladly  part  with  all  the  wealth  of  the  transient 
earth  for  a place  in  which  to  hide  from  the  angry  rush  of  a 
wrathful  God  coming  in  triumph. 

Life  is  like  the  sea  over  which  we  fare  in  ships;  gliding  over 
the  ocean-flood,  over  the  water  cold,  driving  the  flood-wood 
through  the  spacious  sea  with  horses  of  the  deep.  “A  perilous 
stream  is  this  with  boundless  waves  and  these  are  stormy  seas, 
on  which  we  toss  about.  # # # The  way  was  hard  ere  we 
had  sailed  unto  the  land.  The  help  that  came  to  us  that  brought 
us  to  the  haven  of  salvation  was  God’s  spirit  son,  which  gave  us 
grace  so  that  we  may  know  even  from  the  vessel’s  deck  where 
we  must  bind  with  anchor  fast  our  ocean  steeds,  old  stallions  of 
the  waves.”  And  the  second  section  concludes  with  a prayer: — 
“O  let  us  rest  our  hope  in  that  same  haven  which  the  ruler  of 
sky  opened  for  us,  holy  on  high,  when  he  to  heaven  ascended.” 

Listen  ! From  the  four  corners  of  the  earth  comes  the 
sound  of  trumpets.  It  is  the  day  of  judgment.  The  midearth 
quakes  and  the  region  under  men.  Boldly  and  gloriously  the 
tones  sing  and  chant  from  North  and  South,  from  East  and 
West,  o’er  all  creation,  waking  aghast  from  the  tomb  the  sons  of 
warrior  men  and  all  mankind  and  bidding  them  arise  from  their 
deep  sleep  and  appear  unto  the  final  doom.  Then  a sunbeam 
from  the  south  shall  light  the  path  of  the  Son  of  God  as  he 
appears  from  the  vaults  of  heaven  full  of  menace  to  some,  but  to 
the  blessed,  glorious. 

“Then  the  great  creation  shall  resound  and  before  the  Lord 
shall  go  the  greatest  of  all  raging  fires  throughout  the  spacious 
earth,  hot  flame  shall  roar,  the  heavens  shall  burst,  the  steadfast 
and  bright  planets  shall  fall  down.  Then  shall  the  sun  be 
changed,  all  swart  to  the  hue  of  blood,  the  sun  which  brightly 
shone  for  the  sons  of  men  above  the  former  world.  Likewise 
the  moon,  which  erewhile  gave  light  for  mankind  in  the  night,  shall 
fall  adown  and  the  stars  too  shall  descend  from  heaven,  tempest- 
driven  through  the  stormy  air.” 


University  oi  Oregon  Bulletin 


31 


God  shall  select  the  righteous  from  the  wicked  and  “ then 
through  the  spacious  plain  the  voice  of  heaven’s  trumpet  shall 
be  heard  aloud  and  on  the  seven  sides  the  wind  shall  howl  and 
blow  and  break  with  greatest  noise,  and  wake  and  waste  the 
world  with  storms  and  with  their  breath  o’erflow  the  world’s  crea- 
tion. Then  a hard  crash,  loud,  immeasurable,  heavy  and  vio- 
lent, the  greatest  of  fierce  dins,  terrible  for  mortals,  shall  be 
manifest.  Then  legions  of  the  race  of  men  accurst  shall  wend  in 
multitudes  into  wider  flame  and  living  shall  there  feel  destroying 
fires,  some  up,  some  down,  fulfilled  with  burning.” 

Then  follows,  in  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  sections  of  the 
last  third  of  the  poem,  a vivid  account  of  the  details  of  judgment 
where  the  thoughts  and  deeds  of  man  since  the  beginning  are 
laid  bare  before  the  Almighty  Judge,  who  receives  the  righteous 
into  the  radiant  beauty  of  his  Father’s  realm,  which  home,  joy- 
fully, before  all  worlds,  was  made  ready  for  them  when  with  the 
best  beloved  they  might  behold  life's  riches,  the  sweet  delights  of 
heaven.  But  to  the  unrighteous  he  recounts  his  experience  with 
man,  the  fall,  the  banishment  from  Eden,  his  own  coming  in  human 
guise  to  redeem  man,  the  crucifixion  and  all  the  martyrdom  he 
endured  for  man  till  then,  the  buffetings,  the  scourgings,  the 
insults  and  all,  in  the  case  of  these,  to  no  avail,  for  in  the  hard- 
ness of  their  hearts  they  turned  from  him,  “ and  now,”  he  pro- 
claims, “ I claim  of  thee  that  life  which  thou  hast  sinfully 
destroyed  with  vice  to  thine  own  shame.  Render  me  thy  life, 
for  which  in  martyrdom,  I gave  thee  once  mine  own  as  price. 
Why  hast  thou  filthily  defiled,  by  thine  own  will,  through  wicked 
lusts  and  through  foul  sin,  thy  tabernacle  which  I sanctified  in 
thee  to  be  the  cherished  home  of  my  delights  ...  Ye 
denied  help  to  the  poor  . . . succor  to  the  needy  . 

comfort  to  the  sorrowful.  ...  Ye  did  this  in  scorn  of  me, 
heaven’s  King;  wherefore  . . . Go,  now  accursed,  wilfully 

cut  off  from  angel’s  joy,  into  eternal  fire,  which  hot  and  fiercely 
grim  was  dight  for  the  devil  Satan  and  his  comrades  too  and,  all 
that  swarthy  shoal;  therein  shall  ye  fall.” 

Sweeps  then  the  victory  sword  and  into  the  deep  gulf,  into 
the  swart  flame  plunges  the  devil  and  his  hosts  to  be  wrapped  in 
flame,  lapped  in  eternal  fire.  Sorrow  and  penitence  now  avail 


32 


University  oi  Oregon  bulletin 


naught  to  that  one  who  in  this  life  refused  his  opportunity  for 
eternal  salvation.  Improve  the  opportunity  then  in  this  life, 
foster  zealously  the  beauty  of  the  soul,  be  wary  in  words  and 
deeds,  in  habits  and  thoughts,  while  this  world,  speeding  with  its 
shadows,  may  still  shine  for  man.  And  as  a reward  accept 
everlasting  life,  “begirt  with  light,  bewrapt  in  peace,  shielded 
from  sorrow.”  In  that  land  “there  shall  be  angels’  song;  bliss  of 
the  happy;  the  cherished  presence  of  the  Lord  brighter  than  the 
sun;  . . . life  without  death’s  end;  a gladsome  host  of  men; 
youth  without  age;  the  glory  of  heavenly  chivalry.”  A glorious 
clime  where  there  shall  be  for  the  blessed  “ health  without  pain, 
rest  without  toil,  day  without  gloom,  where  radiant  and  joyful  there 
shall  be  happiness  without  sorrow,  friendship  without  feud,  peace 
without  enmity,  where  there  is  neither  hunger  nor  thirst,  sleep 
nor  sickness,  heat  nor  cold  nor  care;  but  where  the  company  of 
the  blest,  the  fairest  of  all  hosts,  shall  there  forever  enjoy  their 
Sovran’s  grace  and  glory  with  their  King. 

The  personal  element  in  the  Christ  is  intense.  The  poet 
deplores  the  natural  proneness  of  man  toward  evil,  beseeches  the 
throne  of  grace  for  pardon,  repents  his  years  misspent  and 
breaks  forth  in  songs  of  rejoicing  and  praise  that  the  power  that 
rules  over  all  has  provided  a pardon  large  enough  to  cover  all  of 
man’s  transgression. 

The  “Christ”  is  more  than  a homily  in  verse*,  it  is  a series 
of  lyrics  that  suggests  a choral  endingf,  that  contains  passage 
after  passage  of  thanksgiving  and  celebration  of  the  attributes  of 
the  Redeemer.  The  poem  would  fall  into  that  class  of  work 
influenced  directly  by  monasticism  in  England  and  is  distinc- 
tively Christian  in  tone.  It  possesses  gorgeousness  of  ornamenta- 
tion, unique  conceits,  strength  of  imagery,  great  vividness  of 
dramatic  description  and  often  a marked  floridity  of  style.  The 
angels  are  spoken  of  as  “wrapt  in  harmony”  and  the  angelic 
hosts  pictured  as  flying  as  near  as  possible  to  the  fierce  light  of 
the  throne.  The  familiar  similes  of  the  Son  of  Man  coming  in 
judgment  as  a thief  in  the  night  “even  as  some  wily  robber, 
some  daring  thief  that  prowleth  in  the  dark  in  the  swart  night,” 


*Courthope’s  “History  of  English  poetry,”  Vol.  1.  p.  103. 
fStopford  Brooke’s  “History  of  Eng.  Literature,”  p.  390. 


University  of  Oregon  Bulletin 


33 


and  life  being  like  a sea  o’er  which  we  pass  in  boats  are  said  to 
be  the  first  similies  in  Anglo-Saxon  poetry*.  And  what  scene 
can  be  more  awfully  dramatic  than  when  on  the  judgment  day  the 
Rood,  the  sacred  tree  on  which  Christ  hung — for  which  in  an 
agony  of  shame  and  grief  full  many  a tree  beneath  its  bark  was 
suffused  with  tears,  bloody  and  thick,  the  sap  all  turned  to  gore — 
the  Rood  stood  high  to  heaven  before  the  children  of  men, 
gleaming  with  a light  that  dimmed  the  light  of  the  sun,  dripping 
with  the  holy  blood  of  heaven’s  King,  moistened  with  the  sweat  of 
his  death  agony.  There  men  beheld  even  the  ancient  gaping 
wounds  whose  lips  though  mute  spoke  eloquently  of  the  anguish 
Christ  suffered  at  the  hands  of  those  whom  he  came  to  redeem. 

The  poem  abounds  in  variety  and  richness  of  epithet. 
Mary  is  the  “choicest  of  maidens,”  “damsel  renowned.”  The 
ships  are  “horses  of  the  deep, ”“  flood-wood,”  “ocean  steeds,” 
“old  stallions  of  the  waves.”  The  power  of  evil  is  represented  as 
“ accursed  wolf,”  “beast  of  darkness,”  “ man’s  destroyer,” 
“the  mind’s  destroyer,”  “accursed  hell-sprites,”  “hated  hell- 
fiends,”  and  the  wicked  spoken  of  as  “shoals  of  the  pernicious.” 
Christ  is  the  “ Great  Leader  in  Bethany,”  “ Helm  of  Glory,” 
“Lord  Majestic,”  Bounteous  Dispenser,”  “Splendour’s  Lord,” 
“Heaven’s  Lord,”  “Source  of  Man’s  Life,”  “Creation’s 
Source,”  “ God’s  Spirit  Son,”  “The  Savior  Child,”  “ Glory’s 
Treasury,”  “The  Lord  of  Empire.” 

Such  in  the  abstract  is  the  poem  “ Christ  ” in  which  the 
two  poetic  elements  of  Prayer  and  Praise  predominate.  The 
sources  of  the  poem  are  few  and  so  scanty  that  they  can  be 
called  really  no  more  than  suggestions — a Latin  homily,  a Latin 
poem,  an  apocryphal  tradition.  These  are  all  that,  aside  from 
the  scriptural  narratives,  can  be  said  to  have  influenced  to  any 
extent  this  poem  of  Cynewulf.  And  the  influence  of  these  was 
slight,  a clause  or  at  most  a sentence  or  two,  furnishing  the  idea 
that  stirred  in  the  poet’s  mind  a perfect  rush  of  song,  that  poured 
forth  full  and  glorious  in  bursts  of  sustained  and  triumphant  har- 
mony. The  idea  was  from  without,  the  song  was  his  own,  and 
the  passionate  throbbings  of  a poet’s  soul,  of  a devout  poet’s  soul, 
the  flood  of  melody  in  lyric  after  lyric,  the  beauty  of  fancy,  the 

*Ten  Brink:  Vol.  1,  p.  55. 


34 


University  at  Oregon  Bulletin 


ruggedness  and  grandeur  of  diction,  the  quickness  of  apprecia- 
tion of  dramatic  situations  and  their  possibilities,  the  intensity  of 
the  personal  element  bring  us  in  this  product  of  Cynewulf’s  art 
most  closely  to  the  poet  who  wrote  so  much  and  left  no  known 
record  save  in  his  work,  and  even  for  whose  name  the  runes  were 
forced  to  give  up  their  secrets. 


/ 


. 


